In speech-act theory, illocutionary force refers to a speaker's intention in delivering an utterance or to the kind of illocutionary act the speaker is performing. Also known as an illocutionary function or illocutionary point.
A great deal has been written about what English as an International Language (EIL) actually is (e.g. Alsagoff et al., 2012; Matsuda, 2012; McKay and Brown, 2016; Sharifian, 2009), ranging from a view of EIL as the many varieties of English that are spoken today to the use of English by second language speakers of English. Thus, EIL is viewed both as a type of English and as a way of using. SANDRA LEE MCKAY Professor Emeritus, San Francisco State University Affiliate Member, Department of Second Language Studies, University of Hawaii CONTACT INFORMATION (Phone: 650-868-1943) (E-mail: [email protected]) ACADEMIC BACKGROUND Degree Year Major University BS 1967 English & Speech Education Univ. Of Minnesota.
In Syntax: Structure, Meaning, and Function (1997), Van Vallin and LaPolla state that illocutionary force 'refers to whether an utterance is an assertion, a question, a command or an expression of a wish. These are different types of illocutionary force, which means that we can talk about interrogative illocutionary force, imperative illocutionary force, optative illocutionary force, and declarative illocutionary force.'
The terms illocutionary act and illocutionary force were introduced by British linguistic philosopher John L. Austin in How to Do Things With Words (1962).
Examples and Observations
Illocutionary Act and Illocutionary Force
'[A]n illocutionary act refers to the type of function a speaker intends to accomplish in the course of producing an utterance. It is an act accomplished in speaking and defined within a system of social conventions. Thus, if John says to Mary Pass me the glasses, please, he performs the illocutionary act of requesting or ordering Mary to hand the glasses over to him. The functions or actions just mentioned are also referred to as the illocutionary force or illocutionary point of the speech act. The illocutionary force of a speech act is the effect a speech act is intended to have by a speaker. Indeed, the term 'speech act' in its narrow sense is often taken to refer specifically to illocutionary act.'
(Yan Huang, The Oxford Dictionary of Pragmatics. Oxford University Press, 2012)
(Yan Huang, The Oxford Dictionary of Pragmatics. Oxford University Press, 2012)
Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices
'There are different devices used to indicate how an illocutionary force must be interpreted. For example, 'Open the door' and 'Could you open the door' have the same propositional content (open the door), but they represent different illocutionary acts—an order and a request respectively. These devices that aid the hearer in identifying the illocutionary force of the utterance are referred to as the illocutionary force indicating devices or IFIDs [also called illocutionary force markers]. Performative verbs, mood, word order, intonation, stress are examples of IFIDs.'
(Elizabeth Flores Salgado, The Pragmatics of Requests and Apologies. John Benjamins, 2011)
(Elizabeth Flores Salgado, The Pragmatics of Requests and Apologies. John Benjamins, 2011)
'I may indicate the kind of illocutionary act I am performing by beginning the sentence with 'I apologize,' 'I warn,' 'I state,' etc. Often, in actual speech situations, the context will make it clear what the illocutionary force of the utterance is, without its being necessary to invoke the appropriate explicit illocutionary force indicator.'
(John R. Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1969)
(John R. Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1969)
'I Was Just Saying That'
- Kenneth Parcell: I'm sorry, Mr. Jordan. I'm just overworked. With my page duties and being Mr. Donaghy's assistant, there's not enough hours in the day.
- Tracy Jordan: I'm sorry about that. But just let me know if there's any way I can help.
- Kenneth: Actually, there is one thing...
- Tracy: No! I was just saying that! Why can't you read human facial cues
(Jack McBrayer and Tracy Morgan, 'Cutbacks.' 30 Rock, April 9, 2009)
Pragmatic Competence
'Achieving pragmatic competence involves the ability to understand the illocutionary force of an utterance, that is, what a speaker intends by making it. This is particularly important in cross-cultural encounters since the same form (e.g. 'When are you leaving?') can vary in its illocutionary force depending on the context in which it is made (e.g. 'May I have a ride with you?' or 'Don't you think it is time for you to go?').'
(Sandra Lee McKay, Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford University Press, 2002)
(Sandra Lee McKay, Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford University Press, 2002)
What I Really Mean
'When I say 'how are you' to a co-worker, I really mean hello. Although I know what I mean by 'how are you,' it is possible that the receiver does not know that I mean hello and actually proceeds to give me a fifteen-minute discourse on his various maladies.'
(George Ritzer, Sociology: A Multiple Paradigm Science. Allyn & Bacon, 1980)
(George Ritzer, Sociology: A Multiple Paradigm Science. Allyn & Bacon, 1980)
Sandra McKay is Professor Emeritus of San Francisco State University. Her main areas of interest are sociolinguistics, English as an International Language, and second language pedagogy. For most of her career she has been involved in second language teacher education, both in the United States and abroad. She has received four Fulbright grants, as well as many academic specialists awards and distinguished lecturer invitations.
Her books include Principles and Practices for Teaching English as an International Language (edited with L. Alsagoff, G. Hu & W. Renandya, 2012, Routledge), Sociolinguistics and Language Education (edited with N. Hornberger, 2010, Multilingual Matters), International English in its Sociolinguistic Contexts: Towards a Socially Sensitive Pedagogy (with Wendy Bokhorst-Heng, 2008, Frances Taylor) and Teaching English as an International Language: Rethinking Goals and Approaches (2002, Oxford University Press, Winner of the Ben Warren International Book Award for outstanding teacher education materials). Her articles appeared in such journals as the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Harvard Educational Review, English Language Teaching, International Journal of Applied Linguistics, Journal of Second Language Writing, System, TESOL Quarterly and World Englishes. She has published many chapters in edited books and given plenary talks at various international conferences, including the Asian International TEFL Conference in Korea, the Regional English Language Conference in Singapore and the EFL Asian Conference in Turkey. She served as TESOL Quarterly editor from 1994 to 1999 and has served on the editorial advisory board for the Journal of Second Language Writing and TESOL Quarterly.[1]
Background[edit]
Her interest in English as an international language developed from her extensive work in countries such as Chile, Hong Kong, Hungary, Latvia, Morocco, Japan, Singapore, South Africa and Thailand.
Books[edit]
- Teaching English Overseas: An Introduction (1992, published by Oxford University Press)
- Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching (edited with Nancy Hornberger, 1996, Cambridge University Press)
- New Immigrants in the US: Readings for Second Language Educators (edited with Sau-ling Wong, 2000, Cambridge University Press)
- Teaching English as an International Language: Rethinking Goals and Approaches (2002, Oxford University Press, winner of the Ben Warren International Book Award)
- International English in its Sociolinguistic Contexts: Towards a Socially Sensitive Pedagogy (with Wendy Bokhorst-Heng, 2008, Frances Taylor)
- Sociolinguistics and Language Education (edited with N. Hornberger, 2010, Multlingual Matters)
- Principles and Practices for Teaching English as an International Language (edited with L. Alsagoff, G. Hu & W. Renandya, 2012, Routledge)
References[edit]
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